STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT: A comprehensive explanation of the stages—infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT: Development is a continuous process. It begins in the mother’s womb and continues until the final moments of an organism’s life. At every stage of the lifespan, distinct changes occur in an individual’s physical form, structure, and characteristics. Each stage is accompanied by various challenges. While different psychologists propose varying classifications for these lifespan stages, the following are the stages generally accepted by all:
Stages – Age
- Prenatal/Pre-birth – From conception to birth
- Infancy – From birth to 2 weeks
- Babyhood – From the 3rd week to 2 years
- Early Childhood – From 2 years to 6 years
- Later Childhood – From 6 years to 12 years
- Puberty – From 12 years to 13–14 years
- Adolescence – From 13–14 years to 18 years
- Adulthood – From 18 years to 40 years
- Middle Age – From 40 years to 60 years
- Old Age – From 60 years until death
Childhood (Period: 6 to 12 years)
This stage of childhood begins at the age of six. It marks a significant milestone in a child’s life; entering school brings about substantial changes in their behavior due to the shift in environment. Psychologists have categorized this period into two phases—early childhood and late childhood—based on specific criteria. Late childhood, in particular, is referred to by various names: educators call it the ‘school age,’ parents term it the ‘messy age,’ while psychologists describe it as the ‘gang age’ and the ‘age of awkwardness.’ Actions are often taken hastily, without foresight, and there is a tendency to rush through tasks. Children at this stage also begin to socialize within groups and adapt to the pressures of their environment.
This period is also sometimes referred to as the ‘ugly age.’ It is a time when milk teeth fall out and permanent teeth emerge, and soft hair is replaced by coarser, longer hair. Factors such as having thin, elongated limbs, unkempt hair, and a lack of personal hygiene contribute to an appearance that may seem awkward or ‘ugly.’
1. Physical Growth During Childhood
During childhood, physical growth proceeds steadily and without significant fluctuations. Children grow approximately 2 to 3 inches in height per year. Differences in height are observed between boys and girls; a primary reason for this is that girls reach sexual maturity earlier than boys.
Weight gain also progresses steadily, similar to height, without major fluctuations. The average annual increase is between 6 and 8 kilograms. Girls tend to weigh more than boys. A boy’s weight is influenced by his body build; he may have a tall, slender physique. At this age, a boy’s weight is also influenced by factors such as intelligence levels and the family’s economic and social status. After the age of six, appetite increases, and children begin to consume more food; some may become overweight due to excessive eating.
During this period of late childhood, the proportions of various body parts change. The disproportionate head size seen earlier normalizes during this stage. The eruption of permanent teeth alters the shape of the mouth, causing the lower part of the face to widen and achieve balanced proportions. The chest becomes broader and flatter, the neck lengthens, and the shoulders may appear to slope downwards. The lower abdomen becomes enlarged. The arms and legs appear thin and long.
Physical characteristics during childhood
- Height increases by an average of 2 to 3 inches; girls tend to be taller than boys.
- There is an average annual weight gain of 6 to 8 kg, with girls gaining slightly more weight.
- Body parts undergo significant changes. The mouth and jaw enlarge, and the forehead appears broader. The chest widens while the abdomen flattens; the limbs appear longer and leaner.
- Twenty-eight permanent teeth emerge.
- Muscles grow larger, stronger, and heavier; the hardening (ossification) of bones also continues.
- Various skills, such as manual dexterity and visual coordination, are acquired.
2. Mental Development During Childhood
As children begin attending school at this age, their world and interests expand. Their awareness of various objects and new people grows, and they begin to perceive special significance in the things around them. Through school subjects like history, geography, science, and social studies, they are introduced to diverse global populations, languages, customs, cultures, crops, and climates. Similarly, mass media—such as radio, television, and cinema—further enhance the child’s knowledge. Many earlier processes and emotions undergo transformation, and a deeper understanding of concepts such as space, numbers, time, death, life, bodily functions, beauty, humor, social dynamics, and the self begins to emerge.
Aspects of Mental Development During Childhood
- Space: A clear understanding of distance (near and far) develops, along with concepts of weight, measurement, and area. Mathematics taught in school aids in expanding this understanding.
- Numbers: Engaging in arithmetic at school and handling money at home fosters a new understanding of numbers. Even eight-year-old children can perform addition and subtraction, followed by multiplication, division, and work with fractions; they can also count up to a thousand. By deciding how much of the money given for small expenses to spend and how much to save, they learn the value of money.
- Time: The ringing of the bell every hour in schools fosters a clear understanding of what needs to be done at specific times. Concepts regarding morning, afternoon, evening, and night begin to take shape. The study of history creates an awareness of the past.
- Life and Death: A basic awareness regarding living and non-living things emerges. Children attempt to understand the differences between animals, plants, and humans. They tend to mirror the reactions of elders when a relative or an animal dies at home; if elders cry, the children cry too, and if elders grieve, the children share in that sorrow. However, a clear concept of death has not yet formed. They become curious about various aspects—such as where the deceased goes, what happens to them, and why they no longer speak.
- Body and Self (Ego): During this period, children become familiar with their external body parts. They also gain an understanding of internal processes, such as the movement of organs and digestion. By comparing themselves with others—peers, parents, and teachers—they develop a clearer sense of their own identity (“Who am I?” and “What am I?”). Within a short time of starting school, they also begin to form attitudes regarding their race, religion, and caste.
- Social Aspect: As boys grow older, they develop the ability to distinguish differences among their peers regarding race, caste, and socioeconomic status (rich vs. poor). Children tend to adopt the attitudes their parents display toward others. They also become aware of gender differences and learn to interact differently with boys and girls.
- Aesthetics: Older boys possess a greater awareness of aesthetics than younger ones and demonstrate more maturity in their appreciation of beauty. A boy tends to regard colors, natural elements, or images as beautiful if his society or peer group favors them. He also develops a keen interest in colorful objects, vibrant clothing, and art.
- Humor: Through social interaction, the boy learns to perceive certain objects or situations as amusing. Common traits include mocking elders or people he dislikes and drawing caricatures. He learns to enjoy listening to jokes and finds pleasure in recognizing humor in stories and satire in movies.
3. Social Development During Childhood
Social development progresses rapidly during this stage of childhood. Children, who were previously self-centered and selfish, quickly learn to cooperate effectively with their peers and adjust well to social situations. Immature behaviors give way to more mature conduct. They no longer prefer playing alone at home or working alongside family members as they once did.
A desire to be part of a peer group and to gain the approval of others is evident in both boys and girls. These peer groups are typically single-sex. Boys may engage in activities such as stealing fruit, smoking secretly, and using obscene language, as well as positive actions like raising funds for charity or participating in plays. While boys’ groups often gather in specific locations like secluded areas, uninhabited houses, or street corners, girls tend to meet at the home of a member where they enjoy complete freedom. Through group interaction, they learn valuable social skills such as competing and cooperating with others, assuming responsibility, and completing assigned tasks. Traits of courage and a spirit of adventure develop, and leadership qualities begin to emerge. A key point to note is that boys who are popular during early childhood do not necessarily remain so later on. Guidance from parents and teachers is absolutely essential for them to achieve popularity in the years that follow.
Social characteristics observed in children during childhood
- They seek friendship by emulating the behavior of children they admire.
- A strong desire to outperform others often emerges.
- There is a heightened interest in group games.
- A tendency to defy elders is observed, manifesting as verbal opposition or feigning not to hear instructions.
- Behaviors such as bossing others around, engaging in direct confrontations, and teasing are frequently seen at this stage.
- Boys and girls form separate groups.
- Social, economic, and religious prejudices begin to appear.
4. Moral Development During Childhood
At this stage, the child mechanically accepts rules imposed by elders, viewing them as all-powerful figures. Actions are judged as wrong based on the likelihood of punishment by others. When caught doing something wrong, the child experiences a fear of punishment rather than a sense of guilt or sin. The child does not reflect on the consequences or implications of their actions. The concept of justice evolves during this period, spanning ages 5 to 12.
Right and wrong are determined based on the specific situation, and a moral code begins to emerge. By the end of childhood, the child possesses a moral code that is largely comparable to that of an adult. Conscience and a sense of right and wrong (or the distinction between sin and virtue) are formed during this stage.
Moral characteristics observed in children during this stage
- They obey various rules to avoid punishment.
- They comply in order to gain rewards or special favors.
- They comply to please those they care about.
- They comply to avoid criticism from authority figures.
- They comply out of respect for the role of an impartial observer making decisions based on social welfare.
- They comply to avoid self-reproach.
Adolescence (Period: 12 to 18 years)
Just as a young plant puts forth fresh shoots day by day, and clear water wells up and overflows from a spring, observe how understanding sprouts and grows in young children—it is a delightful sight in this world. —Mankutimma
As D.V.G. illustrates—likening the growth of understanding in young children to a sapling sprouting fresh leaves daily or a spring overflowing with clear water—adolescence is the period when this understanding blossoms. It is a most significant phase in human life. That is why poets have described this period as the ‘springtime’ of life.
Adolescence is also referred to as the stage of youth or the formative years. It is a phase that occurs in the middle stage of life. This is referred to as a ‘transitional period’ in a person’s life. Adolescence is the phase between childhood and young adulthood. The period spanning the ages of 12 to 18 is known as adolescence, and it has been described as a ‘fountain of growth.’
In English, this stage is called ‘Adolescence.’ The word ‘Adolescence’ is derived from the Latin word Adolescere, which means ‘to grow to maturity.’
Definitions
- A.T. Jersild: “Adolescence is a span of years, during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood socially, mentally, physically, emotionally, sexually, and intellectually.”
- Stanley Hall: “Adolescence is a period of great stress and strain, storm and strife.”
- Madison and Johnson: “Adolescence is the period that begins with the onset of sexual maturity—marked by physical and social development—and ends when the individual assumes an adult role and gains acceptance within their peer group.”
- Blat and Jones: “Adolescence is the period in an individual’s life that lies between the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood.”
Characteristics of Adolescence
Adolescence is a period marked by intense changes, during which the needs of adolescents grow continuously. These needs and characteristics can be categorized as follows:
- Physical Characteristics: Adolescence is often described as a “spurt of growth,” primarily due to the significant physical changes that occur. These physical traits also act as catalysts for various psychological and social changes in adolescents.
- Increase in Height and Weight: During adolescence, a significant increase in both height and weight is observed. They grow by approximately 2 to 3 inches annually and gain weight steadily.
- Physical Strength and Vigor: As adolescents gain more energy during this period, they become eager to engage in various physical activities and sports. They also tend to develop an adventurous spirit.
- Changes in Voice: Another notable characteristic of this period is the significant change in voice; boys’ voices tend to deepen and become more robust, while girls’ voices become more melodious.
- Sexual orientation: During this period, adolescents experience mutual attraction. Simultaneously, their sexual orientation develops intensely; influenced by this, they engage in various activities.
- Health: Girls may experience health fluctuations due to a potential lack of blood (anemia); acne frequently appears on the faces of both boys and girls.
- Changes in physical characteristics: Boys begin to grow facial hair (moustaches and beards). Girls experience a widening of the chest and the onset of breast development; they also attain puberty (begin menstruation).
- Changes in body size: During this period, various body parts undergo significant changes; for instance, permanent teeth emerge, the jaw enlarges, and the nose increases in both size and prominence.
Since physical development during adolescence proceeds in a unique and distinct manner, parents and teachers should provide systematic guidance. This is a period characterized by a certain fluidity in temperament and mindset, which significantly influences psychological development.
2. Psychological Characteristics
Significant psychological characteristics are evident in every individual during adolescence. This period witnesses substantial development as they cultivate the ability to think independently and make decisions. The following psychological traits emerge during this stage:
- Choice of Ideals: Adolescence is the phase when individuals develop the mindset to distinguish between right and wrong and incorporate these values into their lives. It is a time when adolescents form their own perspectives regarding their environment, culture, traditions, people, and leaders, subsequently integrating suitable elements into their personalities.
- Desire for Independence: Just as adolescents gain the mental strength to make decisions, they also desire autonomy in all their actions. A tendency to resist restrictions emerges, which can, in many instances, lead to conflicts.
- Prominence of Emotions: Emotions and impulses play a significant role during this stage. These feelings fluctuate constantly, influenced by various factors from moment to moment. Adolescents also acquire the ability to think about abstract concepts.
- Creative Thinking: As the interests and tastes that emerge during adolescence evolve critically, creative thinking develops; the adolescent harbors a strong desire to achieve something unique in their endeavors that earns public appreciation.
- Hero Worship: Independent thinking allows adolescents to explore their own imaginative worlds. They begin to admire leaders who resonate with them, identifying with the leader’s traits and engaging in hero worship.
- Intellect: During this period, adolescents cultivate creative thinking and progressively enhance their intellectual capabilities. They develop their intellect systematically as they learn to comprehend and analyze problems.
Adolescence is often described as the period when the intellect truly blossoms. The reason is simple: during this stage, mental faculties improve and move towards maturity. Consequently, their thought processes, reasoning abilities, and inquisitive nature take on new dimensions, leading to heightened intellectual capacity.
Social Characteristics
The following characteristics are observed during adolescence:
- They develop the ability to build positive social relationships and cultivate a tendency to both give and receive respect.
- Young men and women, drawn to one another, are motivated to undertake specific actions to win the affection and empathy of the opposite sex.
- They develop a defensive attitude if anyone criticizes their friends, relatives, or loved ones.
- Seeking a degree of independence from family ties, they strive to establish their own identity by actively participating in friendship circles and various organizations.
- Adolescents reflect on their actions and form their own concepts of right and wrong; they aspire to become prominent leaders by dedicating themselves to the betterment of society.
- Their social circle expands and relationships strengthen as they move from home to school, then to peer groups, and subsequently to broader social organizations.
- They cultivate active traits such as cooperation, coordination, altruism, and interpersonal competence.
Thus, alongside developing diverse interests and attitudes—and adopting various styles of dress and appearance—adolescents gradually shape their social characteristics.
4. Emotional Characteristics
Adolescence is often described as a period characterized by a whirlwind of emotions. Adolescents frequently experience internal emotional conflicts regarding various issues. Although they possess the capacity to express their emotions, they often refrain from doing so in many situations.
The following emotional characteristics are observed during adolescence:
- Emotional experiences vary from person to person.
- Emotions during adolescence are often accompanied by stress and strain.
- Intense physical changes during adolescence lead to emotional fluctuations.
- Swayed by romantic feelings and infatuation, they may engage in reckless or daring acts.
- They are prone to arguments or conflicts over trivial matters with friends, at school, or at home.
- Impulsive behavior can cause them to lose interest in their studies or learning activities.
- Adolescents experience heightened tension due to emotions such as fear, anger, jealousy, curiosity, anxiety, happiness, sorrow, criticism, and ridicule.
- They are prone to becoming distressed or agitated very quickly.
The following moral characteristics emerge during adolescence:
- They gain an understanding of the religious beliefs and practices of their family and society.
- Unpredictable or inappropriate behaviors may be observed.
- Moral qualities such as altruism, social service, patriotism, and humanitarian concern begin to develop.
- Despite having a concept of right and wrong, they may still violate these norms.
Adulthood is a period of tranquility. The mental turbulence experienced in the previous stage stabilizes. Rational thinking emerges, and the capacity for self-restraint develops. With a broader outlook, the adult strives to achieve specific goals. There is a strong desire to pursue a career and realize one’s ambitions. Through experience, the individual gains knowledge of the world and adapts to society. As a practical perspective evolves, the adult becomes thoughtful and prudent; while striving for peace and stability in life, they also become open to the wisdom gained from the experiences of others.
Adulthood signifies the stage where both growth and capabilities reach full maturity. Generally, an individual is considered an adult after the age of 21 and retains this status for the rest of their life. This stage differs distinctly from the preceding and succeeding periods due to certain major adjustments that occur within it. Psychologists have characterized this phase as a time for “procreation,” “settling down,” and a period marked by “problems and emotional crises.” Numerous physical and psychological changes take place throughout the long span of adulthood. Just as youth is divided into sub-stages, adulthood is also categorized into three sub-stages:
- Early Adulthood – 21 to 40 years
- Middle Adulthood – 40 to 60 years
- Old Age – 60 years until death
The twenty years of early adulthood are characterized by family-building—specifically child-rearing and increasing domestic responsibilities—as individuals strive to establish stability in their lives.
Middle adulthood coincides with the period when children leave home (or become independent) and signs of physical and mental decline begin to appear. By the age of 60, this decline becomes quite pronounced, marking the onset of old age.
Old age spans the period from approximately age 60 until death. The duration varies among individuals, reflecting personal differences. Factors such as changes in physical appearance, physiological functions, personal tastes, and environmental stressors can lead to challenges in adjustment.
1. Physical characteristics during adulthood
Physical capacity peaks in the mid-twenties; it then declines gradually until the age of 40–45, after which the rate of decline accelerates. During this phase, driven by an eagerness to get ahead, some individuals work ceaselessly—often neglecting proper nutrition and rest. Such habits increase the risk of conditions like high blood pressure and intestinal disorders.
By middle age, the body no longer functions as efficiently as it once did. Bodily organs undergo gradual deterioration, and sexual drive diminishes. There is also a tendency to gain weight and accumulate excess body fat. The skin on the face, neck, arms, and hands begins to wrinkle. Dark circles appear under the eyes. In addition to the appearance of grey hair, hair density decreases.
Upon reaching old age, physical decline becomes clearly visible. Teeth fall out, leaving the mouth toothless, and the chin begins to sag. Cheeks become wrinkled and sunken. The eyes appear sunken, and the fingernails and toenails become rough. Stature decreases, and the shoulders slump forward. Digestion slows down, necessitating dietary adjustments. Gradually, tremors begin in the hands and legs.
2. Psychological Characteristics in Adulthood
An individual’s intellectual capacity develops steadily until the age of 30, after which it plateaus and remains relatively stable until around the age of fifty. Mental abilities reach their peak in early adulthood and continue without significant change until middle age begins. Higher levels of education tend to foster a greater willingness to accept the perspectives of others.
Once a decline in ability begins in middle age, it continues progressively until the end of life. Individuals become aware of the difficulty in learning new concepts, data, or managing emotional issues. They become unable to perform complex tasks. Reasoning and numerical abilities decline relatively quickly. Memory and reasoning abilities begin to decline. The childlike behavior often associated with old age typically manifests around the age of 70 or 80. Individuals become forgetful and tend to attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects. While they often dwell on their past, they lose awareness of the future.
3. Social Characteristics in Adulthood
During adulthood, individuals face various challenges regarding social adjustment. There is a growing desire for personal advancement and the attainment of a higher status than one currently holds; consequently, the individual strives to secure a prominent position in society. This phase often requires modifying past behaviors and navigating the complexities of parenthood. One may have to forgo certain social activities to focus on raising children and managing household responsibilities. However, by middle age, these specific burdens often ease, allowing individuals to re-engage in social activities—such as socializing with peers and attending gatherings or events. Studies indicate that social engagement peaks in the late forties and gradually declines by the age of sixty. Activities such as hosting others, spending heavily to maintain social status, and serving on various committees tend to diminish as individuals retire and their income decreases. Due to these changes, individuals often withdraw from social activities and spend their remaining time with family—children, grandchildren, and close friends. To ensure the elderly lead a good life, specific measures must be implemented for their well-being:
- Arrangements must be made to ensure an adequate income for all elderly individuals.
- Their physical and mental health must be safeguarded.
- Suitable housing accommodation must be provided.
- Conditions should be created to enable them to lead a fulfilling life, much like they did in the past.
- Employment opportunities should be provided wherever possible.
- Retirement arrangements must be structured to uphold their dignity and self-respect.
Society must recognize that if the elderly are given appropriate opportunities, they too can live happy and fulfilling lives, just like anyone else.
